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October 1997, Vol 115, No. 10 >
ARTICLE | October 1997

What Is the Future of Research in Age-Related Macular Disease? FREE

Alan C. Bird, MD
Arch Ophthalmol. 1997;115(10):1311-1313. doi:10.1001/archopht.1997.01100160481017
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Comments

Age-related macular disease (AMD) accounts for approximately 50% of all cases of registered blindness in England and Wales1; this high prevalence is likely to exist in all economically developed white communities.2-4 A recent analysis indicates that the prevalence seems to be increasing at a rate not fully explained by the increasing age of the population5; as a cause of visual loss, AMD is as common as diabetes and glaucoma during working life.5 Despite the early expectations,6-8 it is evident that the techniques of laser treatment will not have a major effect on blindness due to AMD.9-11 Other forms of treatment are under trial,12-18 but they may not be vastly more successful than photocoagulation. This requires that our knowledge of the behavior and pathogenesis of the disorder be reexamined in the hope that alternative approaches to management be identified.

There is good evidence of

REFERENCES

1 +
Evans J. Causes of Blindness and Partial Sight in England and Wales 1990-1991: Studies on Medical and Population Subjects No. 57 . London, England: Her Majesty's Stationery Office; 1995;.
2 +
Leibowitz HM, Krueger DE, Maunder LR, et al.  The Framingham Eye Study monograph: an ophthalmological and epidemiological study of cataract, glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, macular degeneration, and visual acuity in a general population of 2631 adults, 1973-1975 . Surv Ophthalmol . 1980;( (suppl) );24:335-610.
3 +
Rosenberg T, Klie F.  The incidence of registered blindness caused by age-related macular degeneration . Acta Ophthalmol Scand . 1996;;74:399-402.
4 +
Newland HS, Hiller JE, Casson RJ, Obermeder S.  Prevalence and causes of blindness in the south Australian population aged 50 and over . Ophthalmic Epidemiol . 1996;;3:97-107.
5 +
Evans J, Wormald R.  Is the incidence of registrable age-related macular degeneration increasing? Br J Ophthalmol . 1996;;80:9-14.
6 +
Macular Photocoagulation Group.  Argon laser photocoagulation for senile macular degeneration: results of a randomized clinical trial . Arch Ophthalmol . 1982;;100:1347-1357.
7 +
Coscas G, Soubranne G.  Photocoagulation des néovaisaux sourétiens dans le dégénérescence maculaire sénile par laser β argon: résultas d'une édute randomisée de 60 cas . Bull Mem Soc Fr Ophtalmol . 1982;;88:102-106.
8 +
Moorfields Macular Study Group.  Treatment of senile macular degeneration: a single blind randomised trial by argon laser photocoagulation . Br J Ophthalmol . 1982;;66:745-753.
9 +
Moorfields Macular Study Group.  Retinal pigment epithelial detachments in the elderly: a controlled trial of argon laser photocoagulation . Br J Ophthalmol . 1982;;66:1-16.
10 +
Chisholm IH.  The recurrence of neovascularisation and late failure in senile disciform lesions . Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K . 1983;;103:354-359.
11 +
Macular Photocoagulation Group.  Argon laser photocoagulation for neovascular maculopathy: three-year results from randomized clinical trials . Arch Ophthalmol . 1986;;224:493-501.
12 +
Hart PM, Chakravarthy U, MacKenzie G, Archer DB, Houston RF.  Teletherapy for subfoveal choroidal neovascularisation of age-related macular degeneration: results of follow up in a non-randomised study . Br J Ophthalmol . 1996;;80:1046-1050.
13 +
Wetzig PC.  Photocoagulation of drusen related macular degeneration: a long term outcome . Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc . 1994;;92:292-306.
14 +
Frennesson IC, Nilsson SE.  Laser photocoagulation of soft drusen in early age-related maculopathy (ARM): the one-year results of a prospective, randomised trial . Eur J Ophthalmol . 1996;;6:307-314.
15 +
Kaiser HJ, Flammer J, Stumpfig D, Hendrickson P.  Visaline in the treatment of age-related macular degeneration: a pilot study . Ophthalmologica . 1995;;209:302-305.
16 +
Stur M, Tittl M, Reitner A, Meisinger V.  Oral zinc and the second eye in age-related macular degeneration . Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci . 1996;;37:1225-1235.
17 +
Pharmacological Therapy for Macular Degeneration Study Group.  Interferon alfa-2a is ineffective for patients with choroidal neovascularization secondary to age-related macular degeneration: results of a prospective randomized placebo controlled clinical trial . Arch Ophthalmol . 1997;;115:865-872.
18 +
Ormerod LD, Puklin JE, Frank RN.  Long-term outcomes after the surgical removal of advanced subfoveal neovascular membranes in age-related macular degeneration . Ophthalmology . 1994;;101:1201-1210.
19 +
Piguet B, Wells JA, Palmvang IB, Wormald R, Chisholm IH, Bird AC.  Age-related Bruch's membrane change: a clinical study of the relative role of heredity and environment . Br J Ophthalmol . 1993;;77:400-403.
20 +
Heiba IM, Elston RC, Klein BEK, Klein R.  Sibling correlations and segregation analysis of age-related maculopathy: the Beaver Dam Eye Study . Genet Epidemiol . 1994;;11:51-67.
21 +
Silvestri TG, Johnson PB, Hughes AE.  Is genetic predisposition an important risk factor in age-related macular disease? Eye . 1994;;8:564-568.
22 +
Klein ML, Mauldin WM, Stoumbos VD.  Heredity and age-related macular degeneration: observations in monozygotic twins . Arch Ophthalmol . 1994;;112:932-937.
23 +
Ott J.  Complex traits on the map . Nature . 1996;;379:772-773.
24 +
Gregor Z, Joffe L.  Senile macular changes in the black African . Br J Ophthalmol . 1978;;62:547-550.
25 +
Schachat AP, Hyman L, Leske MC, Connell AM, Wu SY.  Features of age-related macular degeneration in a black population . Arch Ophthalmol . 1995;;113:728-735.
26 +
Kubo N, Ohno Y, Yanagawa H, Yuzawa M, Matsui M, Uyama M. Annual Estimated Number of Patients With Senile Disciform Macular Degeneration in Japan: Research Committee on Chorioretinal Degenerations . Toyko: Ministry of Health and Welfare of Japan; 1989;:136-139.
27 +
Kubo N, Ohno Y, Yuzawa M, et al. Report on Nationwide Clinico-Epidemiological Survey of Senile Disciform Macular Degeneration in Japan: Research Committee on Chorioretinal Degenerations . Tokyo: Ministry of Health and Welfare of Japan; 1990;:121-124.
28 +
Yuzawa M, Hagita K, Egawa T, Minato H, Matsui M.  Macular lesions predisposing to senile disciform macular degeneration . Jpn J Ophthalmol . 1991;;35:87-95.
29 +
Maruo T, Ikebukuro N, Kawanabe K, Kubota N.  Changes in causes of visual handicaps in Tokyo . Jpn J Ophthalmol . 1991;;35:268-272.
30 +
Yang CS, Lin CL, Lee FL, Tsai SC, Chung YM, Liu JH.  Digital indocyanine green angiography in chorioretinal diseases . Chung Hua I Hsueh Tsa Chih (Taipei) . 1995;;56:411-417.
31 +
Chen SN, Liu KR, Tsai CB, Yang CH, Yang CM, Chen MS.  Indocyanine green videoangiography of choroidal neovascular membrane in age-related macular degeneration . J Formos Med Assoc . 1993;;92:823-828.
32 +
Rosenberg T.  Prevalence and causes of blindness in Greenland . Arctic Med Res . 1987;;46:13-17.
33 +
Rosenberg T.  Prevalence of blindness caused by senile macular degeneration in Greenland . Arctic Med Res . 1987;;46:64-70.
34 +
Berrettini WH, Ferraro TN, Goldin LR, et al.  A linkage study of bipolar illness . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1997;;54:27-35.
35 +
Schizophrenia Linkage Collaborative Group for Chromosomes 3, 6, and 8.  Additional support for schizophrenia linkage on chromosomes 6 and 8: a multi-center study . Am J Med Genet . 1996;;67:580-594.
36 +
Wood NW, Sawcer SJ, Kellar-Wood HF, et al.  Susceptibility to multiple sclerosis and the immunoglobulin heavy chain variable region . J Neurol . 1995;;242:677-682.
37 +
Field LL, Tobias R, Magnus T.  A locus on chromosome 15q26 (IDDM3) produces susceptibility to insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus . Nat Genet . 1994;;8:189-194.
38 +
Holz FG, Piguet B, Minasian DC, Bird AC, Weale RA.  Decreasing stromal iris pigmentation as a risk factor for age-related macular degeneration . Am J Ophthalmol . 1994;;117:19-23.
39 +
Wroblewski JJ, Wells JA, Eckstein A, et al.  Macular dystrophy associated with mutations at codon 172 in the human retinal degeneration slow (RDS) gene . Ophthalmology . 1994;;101:12-22.
40 +
Weber BH, Vogt G, Pruett RC, Stohr H, Felbor U.  Mutations in the tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-3 (TIMP3) in patients with Sorsby's fundus dystrophy . Nat Genet . 1994;;8:352-356.
41 +
von Ruckmann A, Fitzke FW, Bird AC.  In vivo fundus autofluorescence in macular dystrophies . Arch Ophthalmol . 1997;;115:609-615.
42 +
Capon M, Polkinghorne P, Bird AC.  Sorsby's pseudo-inflammatory macular dystrophy: Sorsby's fundus dystrophy . Eye . 1988;;2:114-122.
43 +
De la Paz MA, Pericak-Vance MA, Lennon F, Haines JL, Seddon JM.  Exclusion of TIPM-3 as a candidate locus in age-related macular degeneration . Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci . 1997;;38:1060-1064.
44 +
Heon E, Piguet B, Munier F, et al.  Linkage of autosomal dominant radial drusen (malattia leventinese) to chromosome 2p16-21 . Arch Ophthalmol . 1996;;114:193-198.
45 +
Gregory CY, Wijesuriya S, Evans K, Jay M, Bird AC, Bhattacharya SS.  Linkage refinement localises Sosby's fundus dystrophy between markers D22S275and D22S278 . J Med Genet . 1995;;32:240-241.
46 +
Gass JDM.  Pathogenesis of disciform detachment of the neuro-epithelium, 3: senile disciform macular degeneration . Am J Ophthalmol . 1967;;63:617-644.
47 +
Hogan MJ.  Role of the retinal pigment epithelium in macular disease . Trans Am Acad Otolaryngol Ophthalmol . 1972;;76:64-80.
48 +
Sarks SH.  Ageing and degeneration in the macular region: a clinico-pathological study . Br J Ophthalmol . 1976;;60:324-341.
49 +
Green WR, Key SN.  Senile macular degeneration: a histopathological study . Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc . 1977;;75:180-254.
50 +
Burns RP, Feeney-Burns L.  Clinico-morphological correlations of drusen and Bruch's membrane . Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc . 1980;;78:206-225.
51 +
Feeney-Burns L, Ellersieck M.  Age-related changes in the ultrastructure of Bruch's membrane . Am J Ophthalmol . 1985;;100:686-697.
52 +
Ishibashi T, Sorgente N, Patterson R, Ryan SJ.  Pathogenesis of drusen in the primate . Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci . 1986;;27:184-193.
53 +
Marshall J.  The ageing retina: physiology or pathology . Eye . 1987;;1:287-295.
54 +
Rungger-Branche E, Englert U, Leuenberger PM.  Exocytic clearing of degraded membrane material from pigment epithelial cells in frog retina . Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci . 1988;;28:2026-2037.
55 +
Boulton M.  Aging of the retinal pigment epithelium . In: Osborne NN, Chader GJ, eds. Progress in Retinal Research . Oxford, England: Pergamon Press; 1991;;11:125-152.
56 +
Wing GL, Blanchard GC, Weiter JJ.  The topography and age relationship of lipofuscin concentrations in the RPE . Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci . 1978;;17:600-607.
57 +
Feeney-Burns L, Berman ER, Rothman H.  Lipofuscin of the human retinal pigment epithelium . Am J Ophthalmol . 1980;;90:783-791.
58 +
Pauleikhoff D, Harper CA, Marshall J, Bird AC.  Aging changes in Bruch's membrane: a histochemical and morphological study . Ophthalmology . 1990;;97:171-178.
59 +
Sheraidah G, Steinmetz R, Maguire J, Pauleikhoff D, Marshall J, Bird A.  Correlation between lipids extracted from Bruch's membrane and age . Ophthalmology . 1993;;100:47-51.
60 +
Holz FG, Sheraidah G, Pauleikhoff D, Bird AC.  Analysis of lipid deposits extracted from macular and peripheral Bruch's membrane . Arch Ophthalmol . 1994;;112:402-406.
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Delori FC, Dorey CK, Staurenghi G, Arend O, Goger DG, Weiter JJ.  In vivo fluorescence of the ocular fundus exhibits retinal pigment epithelial lipofuscin characteristics . Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci . 1995;;36:718-729.
62 +
von Ruckmann A, Fitzke FW, Bird AC.  In vivo fundus autofluorescence in age related macular degeneration . Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci . 1997;;38:478-486.
63 +
Ramrattan RS, van der Schaft TL, Mooy CM, de Bruijn WC, Mulder PGH, de Jong PTVM.  Morphometric analysis of Bruch's membrane, the choriocapillaris, and the choroid in aging . Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci . 1994;;35:2857-2864.
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Moore DJ, Hussain M, Marshall J.  Age-related variation in the hydraulic conductivity of Bruch's membrane . Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci . 1995;;36:1290-1297.
65 +
Starita C, Hussain A, Patmore A, Marshall J.  Localization of the site of major resistance to fluid transport in Bruch's membrane . Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci . 1997;;38:762-767.
66 +
Pauleikhoff D, Chen JC, Chisholm IH, Bird AC.  Choroidal perfusion abnormalities in age related macular disease . Am J Ophthalmol . 1990;;109:211-217.
67 +
Chuang EL, Bird AC.  The pathogenesis of retinal pigment epithelial tears . Am J Ophthalmol . 1988;;105:285-290.
68 +
Holz FG, Wolfensberger T, Piguet B, et al.  Bilateral macular drusen in age-related macular degeneration: prognosis and risk factors . Ophthalmology . 1994;;101:1522-1528.
69 +
Bressler NM. Munoz B, Maguire MG, et al.  Five-year incidence and disappearance of drusen and retinal pigment epithelial abnormalities: Waterman study . Arch Ophthalmol . 1995;;113:301-308.
70 +
Klein R, Klein BE, Jensen SC, Meuer SM.  The five-year incidence and progression of age related maculopathy: the Beaver Dam Eye Study . Ophthalmology . 1997;;104:7-21.
71 +
Piguet B, Palmvang IB, Chisholm IH, Minassian D, Bird AC.  Evolution of age-related macular degeneration with choroidal perfusion abnormality . Am J Ophthalmol . 1992;;113:657-663.
72 +
Rakoczy PE, Mann K, Cavaney DM, Robertson T, Papadimitreou J, Constable IJ.  Detection and possible functions of a cysteine protease involved in digestion of rod outer segments by retinal pigment epithelial cells . Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci . 1994;;35:4100-4108.
73 +
Rozanowska M, Jarvis-Evans J, Korytowski W, Boulton ME, Burke JM, Sarna T.  Blue light induced reactivity of retinal age pigment: in vitro generation of oxygenreactive species . J Biol Chem . 1995;;27:18825-18830.
74 +
Seddon JM, Willett WC, Speizer FE, Hackinson SE.  A prospective study of cigarette smoking and age-related macular disease in women . JAMA . 1996;;276:1141-1146.
75 +
Smith W, Mitchell P, Leeder SR.  Smoking and age-related maculopathy: the Blue Mountain Eye Study . Arch Ophthalmol . 1996;;114:1518-1523.
76 +
Hirvela H, Luukinen H, Laara E, Laatikainen L.  Risk factors of age-related maculopathy in a population 70 years of age or older . Ophthalmology . 1996;;103:871-877.
77 +
Seddon JM, Ajani UA, Sperduto RD, et al.  Dietary carotenoids, vitamins A, C and E, and advanced age-related macular degeneration . JAMA . 1994;;272:1413-1420.
78 +
Mares Perlman JA, Brady WE, Klein R, et al.  Serum antioxidants and age-related macular degeneration in a population-based case-control study . Arch Ophthalmol . 1995;;113:1518-1523.
79 +
McGuire W, Hill AV, Allsopp CE, Greenwood BM, Kwiatkowski D.  Variation in the TNF-alpha promoter region associated with susceptibility to cerebral malaria . Nature . 1994;;371:508-510.

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Country-Specific Mortality and Growth Failure in Infancy and Yound Children and Association With Material Stature

Use interactive graphics and maps to view and sort country-specific infant and early dhildhood mortality and growth failure data and their association with maternal

1 +
Evans J. Causes of Blindness and Partial Sight in England and Wales 1990-1991: Studies on Medical and Population Subjects No. 57 . London, England: Her Majesty's Stationery Office; 1995;.
2 +
Leibowitz HM, Krueger DE, Maunder LR, et al.  The Framingham Eye Study monograph: an ophthalmological and epidemiological study of cataract, glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, macular degeneration, and visual acuity in a general population of 2631 adults, 1973-1975 . Surv Ophthalmol . 1980;( (suppl) );24:335-610.
3 +
Rosenberg T, Klie F.  The incidence of registered blindness caused by age-related macular degeneration . Acta Ophthalmol Scand . 1996;;74:399-402.
4 +
Newland HS, Hiller JE, Casson RJ, Obermeder S.  Prevalence and causes of blindness in the south Australian population aged 50 and over . Ophthalmic Epidemiol . 1996;;3:97-107.
5 +
Evans J, Wormald R.  Is the incidence of registrable age-related macular degeneration increasing? Br J Ophthalmol . 1996;;80:9-14.
6 +
Macular Photocoagulation Group.  Argon laser photocoagulation for senile macular degeneration: results of a randomized clinical trial . Arch Ophthalmol . 1982;;100:1347-1357.
7 +
Coscas G, Soubranne G.  Photocoagulation des néovaisaux sourétiens dans le dégénérescence maculaire sénile par laser β argon: résultas d'une édute randomisée de 60 cas . Bull Mem Soc Fr Ophtalmol . 1982;;88:102-106.
8 +
Moorfields Macular Study Group.  Treatment of senile macular degeneration: a single blind randomised trial by argon laser photocoagulation . Br J Ophthalmol . 1982;;66:745-753.
9 +
Moorfields Macular Study Group.  Retinal pigment epithelial detachments in the elderly: a controlled trial of argon laser photocoagulation . Br J Ophthalmol . 1982;;66:1-16.
10 +
Chisholm IH.  The recurrence of neovascularisation and late failure in senile disciform lesions . Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K . 1983;;103:354-359.
11 +
Macular Photocoagulation Group.  Argon laser photocoagulation for neovascular maculopathy: three-year results from randomized clinical trials . Arch Ophthalmol . 1986;;224:493-501.
12 +
Hart PM, Chakravarthy U, MacKenzie G, Archer DB, Houston RF.  Teletherapy for subfoveal choroidal neovascularisation of age-related macular degeneration: results of follow up in a non-randomised study . Br J Ophthalmol . 1996;;80:1046-1050.
13 +
Wetzig PC.  Photocoagulation of drusen related macular degeneration: a long term outcome . Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc . 1994;;92:292-306.
14 +
Frennesson IC, Nilsson SE.  Laser photocoagulation of soft drusen in early age-related maculopathy (ARM): the one-year results of a prospective, randomised trial . Eur J Ophthalmol . 1996;;6:307-314.
15 +
Kaiser HJ, Flammer J, Stumpfig D, Hendrickson P.  Visaline in the treatment of age-related macular degeneration: a pilot study . Ophthalmologica . 1995;;209:302-305.
16 +
Stur M, Tittl M, Reitner A, Meisinger V.  Oral zinc and the second eye in age-related macular degeneration . Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci . 1996;;37:1225-1235.
17 +
Pharmacological Therapy for Macular Degeneration Study Group.  Interferon alfa-2a is ineffective for patients with choroidal neovascularization secondary to age-related macular degeneration: results of a prospective randomized placebo controlled clinical trial . Arch Ophthalmol . 1997;;115:865-872.
18 +
Ormerod LD, Puklin JE, Frank RN.  Long-term outcomes after the surgical removal of advanced subfoveal neovascular membranes in age-related macular degeneration . Ophthalmology . 1994;;101:1201-1210.
19 +
Piguet B, Wells JA, Palmvang IB, Wormald R, Chisholm IH, Bird AC.  Age-related Bruch's membrane change: a clinical study of the relative role of heredity and environment . Br J Ophthalmol . 1993;;77:400-403.
20 +
Heiba IM, Elston RC, Klein BEK, Klein R.  Sibling correlations and segregation analysis of age-related maculopathy: the Beaver Dam Eye Study . Genet Epidemiol . 1994;;11:51-67.
21 +
Silvestri TG, Johnson PB, Hughes AE.  Is genetic predisposition an important risk factor in age-related macular disease? Eye . 1994;;8:564-568.
22 +
Klein ML, Mauldin WM, Stoumbos VD.  Heredity and age-related macular degeneration: observations in monozygotic twins . Arch Ophthalmol . 1994;;112:932-937.
23 +
Ott J.  Complex traits on the map . Nature . 1996;;379:772-773.
24 +
Gregor Z, Joffe L.  Senile macular changes in the black African . Br J Ophthalmol . 1978;;62:547-550.
25 +
Schachat AP, Hyman L, Leske MC, Connell AM, Wu SY.  Features of age-related macular degeneration in a black population . Arch Ophthalmol . 1995;;113:728-735.
26 +
Kubo N, Ohno Y, Yanagawa H, Yuzawa M, Matsui M, Uyama M. Annual Estimated Number of Patients With Senile Disciform Macular Degeneration in Japan: Research Committee on Chorioretinal Degenerations . Toyko: Ministry of Health and Welfare of Japan; 1989;:136-139.
27 +
Kubo N, Ohno Y, Yuzawa M, et al. Report on Nationwide Clinico-Epidemiological Survey of Senile Disciform Macular Degeneration in Japan: Research Committee on Chorioretinal Degenerations . Tokyo: Ministry of Health and Welfare of Japan; 1990;:121-124.
28 +
Yuzawa M, Hagita K, Egawa T, Minato H, Matsui M.  Macular lesions predisposing to senile disciform macular degeneration . Jpn J Ophthalmol . 1991;;35:87-95.
29 +
Maruo T, Ikebukuro N, Kawanabe K, Kubota N.  Changes in causes of visual handicaps in Tokyo . Jpn J Ophthalmol . 1991;;35:268-272.
30 +
Yang CS, Lin CL, Lee FL, Tsai SC, Chung YM, Liu JH.  Digital indocyanine green angiography in chorioretinal diseases . Chung Hua I Hsueh Tsa Chih (Taipei) . 1995;;56:411-417.
31 +
Chen SN, Liu KR, Tsai CB, Yang CH, Yang CM, Chen MS.  Indocyanine green videoangiography of choroidal neovascular membrane in age-related macular degeneration . J Formos Med Assoc . 1993;;92:823-828.
32 +
Rosenberg T.  Prevalence and causes of blindness in Greenland . Arctic Med Res . 1987;;46:13-17.
33 +
Rosenberg T.  Prevalence of blindness caused by senile macular degeneration in Greenland . Arctic Med Res . 1987;;46:64-70.
34 +
Berrettini WH, Ferraro TN, Goldin LR, et al.  A linkage study of bipolar illness . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1997;;54:27-35.
35 +
Schizophrenia Linkage Collaborative Group for Chromosomes 3, 6, and 8.  Additional support for schizophrenia linkage on chromosomes 6 and 8: a multi-center study . Am J Med Genet . 1996;;67:580-594.
36 +
Wood NW, Sawcer SJ, Kellar-Wood HF, et al.  Susceptibility to multiple sclerosis and the immunoglobulin heavy chain variable region . J Neurol . 1995;;242:677-682.
37 +
Field LL, Tobias R, Magnus T.  A locus on chromosome 15q26 (IDDM3) produces susceptibility to insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus . Nat Genet . 1994;;8:189-194.
38 +
Holz FG, Piguet B, Minasian DC, Bird AC, Weale RA.  Decreasing stromal iris pigmentation as a risk factor for age-related macular degeneration . Am J Ophthalmol . 1994;;117:19-23.
39 +
Wroblewski JJ, Wells JA, Eckstein A, et al.  Macular dystrophy associated with mutations at codon 172 in the human retinal degeneration slow (RDS) gene . Ophthalmology . 1994;;101:12-22.
40 +
Weber BH, Vogt G, Pruett RC, Stohr H, Felbor U.  Mutations in the tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-3 (TIMP3) in patients with Sorsby's fundus dystrophy . Nat Genet . 1994;;8:352-356.
41 +
von Ruckmann A, Fitzke FW, Bird AC.  In vivo fundus autofluorescence in macular dystrophies . Arch Ophthalmol . 1997;;115:609-615.
42 +
Capon M, Polkinghorne P, Bird AC.  Sorsby's pseudo-inflammatory macular dystrophy: Sorsby's fundus dystrophy . Eye . 1988;;2:114-122.
43 +
De la Paz MA, Pericak-Vance MA, Lennon F, Haines JL, Seddon JM.  Exclusion of TIPM-3 as a candidate locus in age-related macular degeneration . Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci . 1997;;38:1060-1064.
44 +
Heon E, Piguet B, Munier F, et al.  Linkage of autosomal dominant radial drusen (malattia leventinese) to chromosome 2p16-21 . Arch Ophthalmol . 1996;;114:193-198.
45 +
Gregory CY, Wijesuriya S, Evans K, Jay M, Bird AC, Bhattacharya SS.  Linkage refinement localises Sosby's fundus dystrophy between markers D22S275and D22S278 . J Med Genet . 1995;;32:240-241.
46 +
Gass JDM.  Pathogenesis of disciform detachment of the neuro-epithelium, 3: senile disciform macular degeneration . Am J Ophthalmol . 1967;;63:617-644.
47 +
Hogan MJ.  Role of the retinal pigment epithelium in macular disease . Trans Am Acad Otolaryngol Ophthalmol . 1972;;76:64-80.
48 +
Sarks SH.  Ageing and degeneration in the macular region: a clinico-pathological study . Br J Ophthalmol . 1976;;60:324-341.
49 +
Green WR, Key SN.  Senile macular degeneration: a histopathological study . Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc . 1977;;75:180-254.
50 +
Burns RP, Feeney-Burns L.  Clinico-morphological correlations of drusen and Bruch's membrane . Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc . 1980;;78:206-225.
51 +
Feeney-Burns L, Ellersieck M.  Age-related changes in the ultrastructure of Bruch's membrane . Am J Ophthalmol . 1985;;100:686-697.
52 +
Ishibashi T, Sorgente N, Patterson R, Ryan SJ.  Pathogenesis of drusen in the primate . Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci . 1986;;27:184-193.
53 +
Marshall J.  The ageing retina: physiology or pathology . Eye . 1987;;1:287-295.
54 +
Rungger-Branche E, Englert U, Leuenberger PM.  Exocytic clearing of degraded membrane material from pigment epithelial cells in frog retina . Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci . 1988;;28:2026-2037.
55 +
Boulton M.  Aging of the retinal pigment epithelium . In: Osborne NN, Chader GJ, eds. Progress in Retinal Research . Oxford, England: Pergamon Press; 1991;;11:125-152.
56 +
Wing GL, Blanchard GC, Weiter JJ.  The topography and age relationship of lipofuscin concentrations in the RPE . Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci . 1978;;17:600-607.
57 +
Feeney-Burns L, Berman ER, Rothman H.  Lipofuscin of the human retinal pigment epithelium . Am J Ophthalmol . 1980;;90:783-791.
58 +
Pauleikhoff D, Harper CA, Marshall J, Bird AC.  Aging changes in Bruch's membrane: a histochemical and morphological study . Ophthalmology . 1990;;97:171-178.
59 +
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